African Culture

 Overview

The African continent was the birthplace of the hominin subfamily and the genus Homo, including eight species, of which only Homo sapiens survive. Human culture in Africa is as old as the human race, and includes Neolithic (10,000 BC) rock carvings, the glacial age petroglyphs (a carving or line drawing on rock, especially one made by prehistoric people) of early hunter-gatherers in the dry grasslands of North Africa, the Nomes of Egypt (3100 BC), and ancient Egypt.

Africa is home to innumerable tribes, ethnic and social groups, some representing very large populations consisting of millions of people; others are smaller groups of a few thousand. Most of these are overlapping. The most conventional distinction is between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern countries from Egypt to Morocco, who largely associate themselves with Arabic culture. In this comparison, the nations south of the Sahara are considered to consist of many cultural areas, in particular that of the Bantu language group.

Divisions may also be made between French Africa and the rest of Africa, in particular the former British colonies of southern and East Africa. Another cultural fault-line is between those Africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern. The traditionalists practices are sometimes subdivided into pastoralists and agriculturalists.

Africa is a big continent and the food and drink of Africa reflect both local influences and colonial food traditions, including use of food products like peppers, peanuts, and maize introduced by the colonizers. African cuisine is a combination of traditional fruits and vegetables, milk, and meat products. The African village diet is often milk, curds, and whey mixed with game and fish gathered from Africa's vast area.

African art reflects the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing art from Africa are 6,000-year old carvings found in Niger, while the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt was the world's tallest architectural accomplishment for 4,000 years until the creation of the Eiffel Tower. The Ethiopian complex of monolithic churches at Lalibela, of which the Church of Saint George is representative, is regarded as another marvel of engineering.

The music of Africa is one of its most dynamic art forms. Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular west Africa, was transmitted through the Atlantic slave trade to modern samba, blues, jazz, reggae, rap, and rock and roll. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of soukous, dominated by the music of the Democratic Republic of Congo. A recent development of the twenty-first century is the emergence of African hip hop. In particular, a form from Senegal is blended with traditional mbalax. Recently in South Africa, a form of music related to house music known under the name Kwaito has developed, although the country has been home to its own form of South African jazz for some time, while Afrikaans music is completely distinct and composed mostly of traditional Boere musiek, and forms of folk and rock music.
[edit] Language

The people of Africa speak hundreds of languages and, if dialects spoken by various ethnic groups are also included, the number is much higher. All these languages and dialects are not of the same importance though, as some have only a few hundred speakers while others have millions. Among the most prominent languages are Arabic, Swahili and Hausa. Very few countries of Africa use any single language and this is the reason the several African and European official languages often coexist.

The languages of Africa present a unity of character as well as diversity, as is manifest in all the dimensions of Africa. Four prominent language families of Africa are:

    * Afro-Asiatic
    * Nilo-Saharan
    * Niger-Kordofanian
    * Khoisan

Persia World Civilization

OBJECTIVES:



1.  Be able to discuss the most noteworthy achievements of the

Persian empire and its most noteworthy rulers.



2.  Be able to discuss the career and beliefs of the prophet

Zoroaster.



3. Be able to discuss the influence of Zoroastrianism on other

religions such as Christianity.  



4.  Be able to discuss the influence of the Persian political

structure on later rulers such as Alexander the Great.



FOOD FOR THOUGHT:



What similarities does the teaching of Zoroaster bear to

Christianity?  



Why did Zoroaster call evil the "lie"?



What could explain the proliferation of great religious thinkers in

the Axis Age?



     The prophet Zoroaster was another of the great figures of the

Axis Age.  The pronounced dualism of his thought influenced later

Christianity.  Though not very long-lived, this unique religion was

one of the great contributions of the axis era.

                           

OUTLINE





I.  Geography



II.  Migrations of the Indo Europeans:



          i.  The Medes and the Persians

          ii.  unification of the Medes in 8th century b.c.

          iii.                conquest of Persians

          iv.            sack of Nineva in 612 b.c.



III.  Fall of Medes and Rise of the Persians --



               A.  Cyrus and conquest in 550 b.c.

               i. 546 b.c. -- conquest of Greek colonies on Asia

                              Minor

               ii.       sea trade

               iii. 539 b.c. -- conquest of Babylon

                    a)   ended Babylonian Captivity of Jews

                    b)   began Achaemenid empire

               B.  Darius I (522-486 b.c.)

                    i.   uniform coinage

                    ii.  standard weights and measures

                    iii. postal service

                    iv.  calendar from Egypt

                    v.   code of law

                    vi.  expeditions into eastern Europe to

                              Danube River

                    vii. India -- Hindush satrap

                              from Indus River to Nile 

                    viii.     proposed canal from Nile to Red Sea



IV.  Characteristics of Persia

     A. government

               i.  satraps --

               ii.       governor

               iii.      military -- the Immortals

               iv.       King elected by gods, received tribute

     B.  Eclectic society

               i.  toleration

               ii.  trade

               iii. Royal Road

               iv.  adoption of official language-- Aramaic

               v.  capitals -- Susa and Persepolis

               vi.  PAX ARCHAEMENICA

     C. influence on Alexander the Great



V.  Zoroatrianism



          i.  Zarathustra

          ii.  The Avesta

          iii.  Dualism

               a)   Ahura Mazda

               b)   Ahriman

          iv.  Traditions

               a)   Judgment day

               b)   treatment of the dead

               c)   priesthood -- Magi

          v.  Cult of Mithras

          vi.  influences on Christianity

               a)   battle between good and evil

               b)   life after death

               c)   good works

          vii.  the decline and resurgence of Zoroastrinisn

The Neolithic Revolution and the Birth of Civilization

Introduction

The history of civilizations comprises only a tiny fraction of the time that the genus Homo has inhabited the earth. Civilized societies those that relied on sedentary agriculture, developed social stratification and economic specialization, and created population densities sufficient to support urban life have existed for the last 9,000 years. In order to understand civilizations, it is necessary to look at prehistorical precedents for human development in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The rise of sedentary agricultural communities during the Neolithic is one of the first great transformations of human society.

Human Life in the Era of Hunters and Gatherers

1. Introduction
Homo sapiens, one of a number of human-like species, was able to achieve biological dominance over its rivals and to spread over much of the earth by 10,000 B.C.E. The success of Homo sapiens was in part due to manual dexterity that permitted the production of tools enhancing the physical capabilities of early humans and to intelligence that allowed the development of spoken language enabling groups of humans to engage in cooperative behavior. Paleolithic Culture One of the earliest cultural traditions of Homo sapiens was the use of fire for cooking, curing animal hides, making weapons, and as a source of heat and light. By the late Paleolithic, human groups practiced mixed hunting and gathering. The surviving technology of this period consists of stone tools, the earliest of which date back more than two million years. Later Paleolithic human culture also featured artistic elements. The most impressive early works of art were cave paintings that may have had religious significance. It is also possible that these early works of art were primitive calendars or counting systems.
2. The Spread of Human Culture
Fire and the use of tools made it possible for humans to spread beyond Africa. By 12,000 B.C.E. human societies spread to Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Australia.
3. Human Society and Daily Life at the end of the Paleolithic Era
While most human societies at the end of the Paleolithic period migrated in pursuit of game, some groups were more sedentary. More stable groups harvested wild grains that grew in profusion near their settlements, and some of these societies progressed to true farming by domesticating plants and animals. Some of these groups subsequently reverted to hunting and gathering, suggesting that humans developed different strategies that produced sufficient quantities of food. Only those groups that adopted agriculture proved capable of producing civilizations. Hunting and gathering groups were limited to about 30 people and required extensive amounts of territory to support themselves. Migratory groups tended to live in the open rather than in caves and probably developed a sense of territoriality over the lands that produced their food. Labor was organized by gender males were responsible for hunting and protection of the group, while females gathered food from plants.
4. Settling Down: Dead Ends and Transitions
Between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E. some hunting-gathering groups developed more intensive techniques that permitted them to establish more sedentary settlements. In what is now central Russia, for example, groups were able to hunt wooly mammoths and supplement meat supplies with intensive gathering. The establishment of sedentary communities allowed intensive hunting and gathering groups to establish social stratification and commerce with other similar groups. An even more specialized society associated with the Natufian complex of the Middle East depended on the intensive gathering of wild grasses primarily barley and wheat. Natufian society was stratified and probably matrilocal and matrilineal. Despite the development of intensive gathering and sophisticated storage of grains, Natufian society did not create any technological innovations. The dependence of Natufian society on regional grasses left them vulnerable to changes in the climate. Due to desiccation of the region, Natufian communities disappeared around 9000 B.C.E.
5. A Precarious Existence
Whether grouped in small bands of nomadic hunters and gatherers or more densely clustered in intensive hunting and gathering groups, life for all Homo sapiens remained precarious. With limited technology and vulnerable to alterations in the migratory patterns of prey or climatic alterations that created changes in the ecosystems on which they depended, all human communities experienced the constant threat of extinction.

Agriculture and the Origins of Civilization: The Neolithic Revolution

1. Introduction
Beginning around 8000 B.C.E., many human cultures became increasingly dependent on cultivated crops and domesticated animals to secure their supply of food. By 7000 B.C.E. sedentary agriculture was able to support towns such as Jericho and Catal Huyuk with populations of more than 1,000. By 3500 B.C.E. the first civilizations appeared in the Middle East. While no one knows for certain what conditions caused the shift from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture, changes in the climate may have been significant factors. It is also probable that increases in human population prompted changes in food production.
2. The Domestication of Plants and Animals
The first plants domesticated were the wild grains, barley and wheat, that were common in many regions of the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture took place slowly. Only as additional crops were added to the agricultural system did societies diminish efforts to hunt and gather. Early agriculturalists may have continued a semi-nomadic lifestyle. At approximately the same time as the domestication of wild grains, agricultural societies also began to domesticate animals. Dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs were among the first animals domesticated around 8500 B.C.E. Cattle, more aggressive and faster than the other animals, were added to the agricultural system around 6500 B.C.E. Domesticated animals improved the supplies of available protein, provided hides and wool for clothing materials, and increased the manuring of agricultural land.
3. The Spread of Neolithic Revolution
The greater effort expended in agricultural systems made the shift to sedentary communities impractical for many groups. Hunting and gathering societies and agricultural communities continued to coexist. Some groups practiced pastoralism based on dependence on domesticated animals. Pastoral societies often thrive in semiarid regions incapable of supporting large populations of farmers. Pastoral societies were often strongly militarized. During the period of the Neolithic revolution (8000-5000 B.C.E.), agricultural techniques of production spread from the Middle East to other areas of the globe where the climate permitted. The cultivation of wheat and barley expanded from the Middle East to India and Europe. From Egypt the cultivation of grain crops spread southward along the Nile. Africa south of the Sahara desert developed an independent agricultural system around 2000 B.C.E. based on root and tree crops. In China, Neolithic agricultural societies developed a separate system of crops based on millet. Somewhat later, farmers of Southeast Asia began to cultivate rice. American agricultural systems featured maize, manioc, and sweet potatoes.
4. The Transform of Material Life
With the shift toward sedentary communities typical of the Neolithic revolution, the human population rapidly expanded. Villages and cultivated fields became the dominant features of human society. The development of sedentary settlements accelerated the pace of technological development. Many of these innovations were directly connected to agriculture, including plows, implements, techniques of seed selection, and irrigation. The development of better tools led to better housing and systems for storage of grain. More dependable food supplies and better housing created conditions conducive to population growth.
5. Social Differentiation
The production of food surpluses allowed social differentiation and economic specialization. Some people were freed from the processes associated with the production of food to make other commodities such as cloth, pottery, and leather goods. Economic specialization led to social stratification and the creation of elite classes of rulers. Regional economic specialization often centered on commodities indigenous to the region in which the community was located. In order to provide an equitable distribution of goods, trade was established among regions featuring different goods. Social stratification in early agricultural communities was limited. Property may have been held by all members of communities in common. The position of women in agricultural communities may have declined. Men took over the critical tasks of agriculture and began to monopolize the use of the new tools.

The First Towns: Seedbeds of Civilization

1. Introduction
By 7000 B.C.E. agricultural productivity was sufficient to support large communities including many nonagriculturalists. In larger communities numbering in the thousands, social stratification increased and trade became critical to the communities' survival. Two of the earliest of these large communities were located at Jericho in Palestine and Catal Huyuk in Turkey. Although few in number and isolated from surrounding villages and nomadic peoples, the earliest urban centers accelerated the pace of change and made major contributions to the technological revolution of the fourth millennium B.C.E.
2. Jericho
Jericho's site was favored by access to water. The site extended to more than ten acres by 7000 B.C.E. The later city consisted of many domestic dwellings built of brick and some religious shrines. The huge wall surrounded the entire settlement. Although Jericho was primarily an agricultural community, there is substantial evidence of both trade and hunting. The residents of Jericho traded their local supplies of salt, sulfur, and pitch for goods from Turkey, the Sinai, and the Red Sea. Structures at Jericho reveal substantial social and economic stratification and the existence of a governing elite.
3. Catal Huyuk
Founded in 7000 B.C.E., Catal Huyuk was larger than Jericho and included a more diversified population. Houses were standardized throughout the community and served as fortifications as well as residences. Standardization implies a stronger ruling elite at Catal Huyuk than at Jericho. Numerous religious shrines also suggest a powerful priesthood. The economy of Catal Huyuk was more diverse than that of Jericho. Pastoralism and domesticated animals were more widely used. Trade in a variety of goods was widespread. Artifacts also suggest the existence of a skilled population of craftsmen making obsidian objects.

Conclusion: The Watershed of the Fourth Millenium B. C. E.

Although not yet major urban centers, such as those associated with early civilizations, Catal Huyuk and Jericho established patterns of standardization and fortification that would eventually be found in the greater cities of Sumer and Egypt. Economic specialization and social stratification proved critical to the development of technological innovation in the fourth millennium B.C.E.

During the thousand years after 4000 B.C.E. the shift from stone tools to bronze took place. The development of writing made record-keeping and trading more effective. Most of this new technology was limited to Eurasia and Africa. The isolation of the Americas prevented the dissemination of many technological advances. Isolation of the Americas also made the people of those continents vulnerable to diseases of the Old World.

INDIAN CIVILIZATION

India has one of the oldest and the richest civilizations in the world. It has been around for many years, dating back to 3000 BC.The two important cities, Harangue and Mohenjo-Daro each held perhaps 35,000 people at their height.Spanning an area of 3,287,263 square kilometers, India is a vast country and includes  dry desert areas, evergreen forests, snowy Himalayas, a long coast, and fertile plains. Religion is an integral part of Indian civilization.Religion is an integral part of Indian civilization. They have many religions,languages,food habits,culture.

Virtually every major religion

has a strong connection with India (including Christianity

-- some people claim Jesus Christ meditated in India in his early years). Buddhism was born in India (not China), so were Sikhism, Jainism, and of course Hinduism.  The Zoroastrians, the Jews (living in India since 600 B.C.), the people of Bahai faith, all are found in India in substantial numbers.  There is no such thing as the Indian language. By some counts there are over 200 languages in India (almost 1600, if you include dialects), with about twenty of them being very prominent ones. Imagine a nation where the population does not understand their national anthem or the President's address to the nation. That is India for you.
The Indian currency is printed in 15 languages.
Most forms (like job application, tax forms) in India are hence printed in three languages -- English, Hindi, and a prominent local language.
to view 200 language goto:http://www.kamat.com/indica/diversity/languages.htm




Diversity in Food Habits:
The food habits of the one billion Indians varies by the availability of raw materials, cooking traditions, local spices, and interestingly their religious faiths. For instance, some Jain communities do not kill life to feed themselves -- including plants! This means they only consume fruits, milk and leaves only. Many communities do not eat meats respecting the life on the animals.
Some communities define meat as "anything that moves" -- thus they consume muscles, but not fish!
Besides the staples, the spices play an important role in Indian food. There are so many spices to appeal to different parts of the body that the English language does not have adequate adjectives to describe them. For example, the hotness that touches the taste-buds is different than the hotness that makes your gums swell !
India also has a number of sweet dishes, mostly based on sugar, milk, and unbleached sugar (called jaggery in India). The Bengal is famous for its milk-based sweets.
In general Indian food is rich in oil and in spices. Rice and wheat are the primary bases for Indian food. The coastal areas fashion seafood delicacies, while the desert areas have mastered cooking with minimal use of water.

SOUTH INDIAN FOOD

India - Political Developments

        Party        Prime Minister

1947    1964    Congress    Jawaharlal Nehru

1964    1966    Congress    Lal Bahadur Shastri

1966    1977    Congress    Indira Gandhi

1977    1979    Janata        Morarji Desai

1979    1980    Janata        Charan Singh

1980    1984    Congress    Indira Gandhi

1984    1989    Congress    Rajiv Gandhi

1989    1990    Janata Dal    V.P. Singh

1990    1991    Janata Dal    Chandra Shekhar

1991    1996    Congress    P.V. Narasimha Rao

1996    1996    Bharatiya JanataAtal Bihari Vajpayee

1996    1997    Janata Dal    H.D. Deve Gowda

1996    1997    Janata Dal    Inder Kumar Gujral

1997    2004    Bharatiya JanataAtal Bihari Vajpayee

2004        Congress    Manmohan Singh

ANCIENT INDIAN ART and ROCK CUT ART

Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization. The earliest remains of recognizable building activity in the India dates back to the Indus Valley cities. Among India's ancient architectural remains, the most characteristic are the temples, Chaityas, Viharas, Stupas and other religious structures. In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities.

The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen. Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious communities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were produced in areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west. Chaityas and Viharas are those rock-cut structures that were hewn out for Buddhist and Jain monks. Chaityas were places of worship whereas Viharas were residence of monks. The Rathas at Mahabalipuram are yet another great specimen of rock-cut architecture in ancient India.