African Culture

 Overview

The African continent was the birthplace of the hominin subfamily and the genus Homo, including eight species, of which only Homo sapiens survive. Human culture in Africa is as old as the human race, and includes Neolithic (10,000 BC) rock carvings, the glacial age petroglyphs (a carving or line drawing on rock, especially one made by prehistoric people) of early hunter-gatherers in the dry grasslands of North Africa, the Nomes of Egypt (3100 BC), and ancient Egypt.

Africa is home to innumerable tribes, ethnic and social groups, some representing very large populations consisting of millions of people; others are smaller groups of a few thousand. Most of these are overlapping. The most conventional distinction is between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern countries from Egypt to Morocco, who largely associate themselves with Arabic culture. In this comparison, the nations south of the Sahara are considered to consist of many cultural areas, in particular that of the Bantu language group.

Divisions may also be made between French Africa and the rest of Africa, in particular the former British colonies of southern and East Africa. Another cultural fault-line is between those Africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern. The traditionalists practices are sometimes subdivided into pastoralists and agriculturalists.

Africa is a big continent and the food and drink of Africa reflect both local influences and colonial food traditions, including use of food products like peppers, peanuts, and maize introduced by the colonizers. African cuisine is a combination of traditional fruits and vegetables, milk, and meat products. The African village diet is often milk, curds, and whey mixed with game and fish gathered from Africa's vast area.

African art reflects the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing art from Africa are 6,000-year old carvings found in Niger, while the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt was the world's tallest architectural accomplishment for 4,000 years until the creation of the Eiffel Tower. The Ethiopian complex of monolithic churches at Lalibela, of which the Church of Saint George is representative, is regarded as another marvel of engineering.

The music of Africa is one of its most dynamic art forms. Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular west Africa, was transmitted through the Atlantic slave trade to modern samba, blues, jazz, reggae, rap, and rock and roll. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of soukous, dominated by the music of the Democratic Republic of Congo. A recent development of the twenty-first century is the emergence of African hip hop. In particular, a form from Senegal is blended with traditional mbalax. Recently in South Africa, a form of music related to house music known under the name Kwaito has developed, although the country has been home to its own form of South African jazz for some time, while Afrikaans music is completely distinct and composed mostly of traditional Boere musiek, and forms of folk and rock music.
[edit] Language

The people of Africa speak hundreds of languages and, if dialects spoken by various ethnic groups are also included, the number is much higher. All these languages and dialects are not of the same importance though, as some have only a few hundred speakers while others have millions. Among the most prominent languages are Arabic, Swahili and Hausa. Very few countries of Africa use any single language and this is the reason the several African and European official languages often coexist.

The languages of Africa present a unity of character as well as diversity, as is manifest in all the dimensions of Africa. Four prominent language families of Africa are:

    * Afro-Asiatic
    * Nilo-Saharan
    * Niger-Kordofanian
    * Khoisan

Genesis 1 (New International Version)

The Beginning

 ¹ In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. ² Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. 

 ³ And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light.  

⁴ God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. 

⁵ God called the light “day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there was morning—the first day. 

 ⁶ And God said, “Let there be a vault between the waters to separate water from water.”

 

⁷ So God made the vault and separated the water under the vault from the water above it. And it was so.  

⁸ God called the vault “sky.” And there was evening, and there was morning—the second day. 

 ⁹ And God said, “Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let dry ground appear.” And it was so.  

¹⁰ God called the dry ground “land,” and the gathered waters he called “seas.” And God saw that it was good.

 ¹¹ Then God said, “Let the land produce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds.” And it was so. 

¹² The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed according to their kinds and trees bearing fruit with seed in it according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. 

¹³ And there was evening, and there was morning—the third day. 

 ¹⁴ And God said, “Let there be lights in the vault of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark sacred times, and days and years,  

¹⁵ and let them be lights in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth.” And it was so.  

¹⁶ God made two great lights—the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars.  

¹⁷ God set them in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth, 

¹⁸ to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good.  

¹⁹ And there was evening, and there was morning—the fourth day. 

 ²⁰ And God said, “Let the water teem with living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the vault of the sky.” ²¹ So God created the great creatures of the sea and every living thing with which the water teems and that moves about in it, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. ²² God blessed them and said, “Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the water in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth.” ²³ And there was evening, and there was morning—the fifth day. 

 ²⁴ And God said, “Let the land produce living creatures according to their kinds: the livestock, the creatures that move along the ground, and the wild animals, each according to its kind.” And it was so. ²⁵ God made the wild animals according to their kinds, the livestock according to their kinds, and all the creatures that move along the ground according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good.

 ²⁶ Then God said, “Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals,^[a] and over all the creatures that move along the ground.” 

 ²⁷ So God created mankind in his own image,
   in the image of God he created them;
   male and female he created them. 

 ²⁸ God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.”

 ²⁹ Then God said, “I give you every seed-bearing plant on the face of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They will be yours for food. ³⁰ And to all the beasts of the earth and all the birds in the sky and all the creatures that move along the ground—everything that has the breath of life in it—I give every green plant for food.” And it was so.

 ³¹ God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the sixth day.

Footnotes:

1. Genesis 1:26 Probable reading of the original Hebrew text (see Syriac); Masoretic Text the earth

Persia World Civilization

OBJECTIVES:



1.  Be able to discuss the most noteworthy achievements of the

Persian empire and its most noteworthy rulers.



2.  Be able to discuss the career and beliefs of the prophet

Zoroaster.



3. Be able to discuss the influence of Zoroastrianism on other

religions such as Christianity.  



4.  Be able to discuss the influence of the Persian political

structure on later rulers such as Alexander the Great.



FOOD FOR THOUGHT:



What similarities does the teaching of Zoroaster bear to

Christianity?  



Why did Zoroaster call evil the "lie"?



What could explain the proliferation of great religious thinkers in

the Axis Age?



     The prophet Zoroaster was another of the great figures of the

Axis Age.  The pronounced dualism of his thought influenced later

Christianity.  Though not very long-lived, this unique religion was

one of the great contributions of the axis era.

                           

OUTLINE





I.  Geography



II.  Migrations of the Indo Europeans:



          i.  The Medes and the Persians

          ii.  unification of the Medes in 8th century b.c.

          iii.                conquest of Persians

          iv.            sack of Nineva in 612 b.c.



III.  Fall of Medes and Rise of the Persians --



               A.  Cyrus and conquest in 550 b.c.

               i. 546 b.c. -- conquest of Greek colonies on Asia

                              Minor

               ii.       sea trade

               iii. 539 b.c. -- conquest of Babylon

                    a)   ended Babylonian Captivity of Jews

                    b)   began Achaemenid empire

               B.  Darius I (522-486 b.c.)

                    i.   uniform coinage

                    ii.  standard weights and measures

                    iii. postal service

                    iv.  calendar from Egypt

                    v.   code of law

                    vi.  expeditions into eastern Europe to

                              Danube River

                    vii. India -- Hindush satrap

                              from Indus River to Nile 

                    viii.     proposed canal from Nile to Red Sea



IV.  Characteristics of Persia

     A. government

               i.  satraps --

               ii.       governor

               iii.      military -- the Immortals

               iv.       King elected by gods, received tribute

     B.  Eclectic society

               i.  toleration

               ii.  trade

               iii. Royal Road

               iv.  adoption of official language-- Aramaic

               v.  capitals -- Susa and Persepolis

               vi.  PAX ARCHAEMENICA

     C. influence on Alexander the Great



V.  Zoroatrianism



          i.  Zarathustra

          ii.  The Avesta

          iii.  Dualism

               a)   Ahura Mazda

               b)   Ahriman

          iv.  Traditions

               a)   Judgment day

               b)   treatment of the dead

               c)   priesthood -- Magi

          v.  Cult of Mithras

          vi.  influences on Christianity

               a)   battle between good and evil

               b)   life after death

               c)   good works

          vii.  the decline and resurgence of Zoroastrinisn

The Neolithic Revolution and the Birth of Civilization

Introduction

The history of civilizations comprises only a tiny fraction of the time that the genus Homo has inhabited the earth. Civilized societies those that relied on sedentary agriculture, developed social stratification and economic specialization, and created population densities sufficient to support urban life have existed for the last 9,000 years. In order to understand civilizations, it is necessary to look at prehistorical precedents for human development in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The rise of sedentary agricultural communities during the Neolithic is one of the first great transformations of human society.

Human Life in the Era of Hunters and Gatherers

1. Introduction
Homo sapiens, one of a number of human-like species, was able to achieve biological dominance over its rivals and to spread over much of the earth by 10,000 B.C.E. The success of Homo sapiens was in part due to manual dexterity that permitted the production of tools enhancing the physical capabilities of early humans and to intelligence that allowed the development of spoken language enabling groups of humans to engage in cooperative behavior. Paleolithic Culture One of the earliest cultural traditions of Homo sapiens was the use of fire for cooking, curing animal hides, making weapons, and as a source of heat and light. By the late Paleolithic, human groups practiced mixed hunting and gathering. The surviving technology of this period consists of stone tools, the earliest of which date back more than two million years. Later Paleolithic human culture also featured artistic elements. The most impressive early works of art were cave paintings that may have had religious significance. It is also possible that these early works of art were primitive calendars or counting systems.
2. The Spread of Human Culture
Fire and the use of tools made it possible for humans to spread beyond Africa. By 12,000 B.C.E. human societies spread to Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Australia.
3. Human Society and Daily Life at the end of the Paleolithic Era
While most human societies at the end of the Paleolithic period migrated in pursuit of game, some groups were more sedentary. More stable groups harvested wild grains that grew in profusion near their settlements, and some of these societies progressed to true farming by domesticating plants and animals. Some of these groups subsequently reverted to hunting and gathering, suggesting that humans developed different strategies that produced sufficient quantities of food. Only those groups that adopted agriculture proved capable of producing civilizations. Hunting and gathering groups were limited to about 30 people and required extensive amounts of territory to support themselves. Migratory groups tended to live in the open rather than in caves and probably developed a sense of territoriality over the lands that produced their food. Labor was organized by gender males were responsible for hunting and protection of the group, while females gathered food from plants.
4. Settling Down: Dead Ends and Transitions
Between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E. some hunting-gathering groups developed more intensive techniques that permitted them to establish more sedentary settlements. In what is now central Russia, for example, groups were able to hunt wooly mammoths and supplement meat supplies with intensive gathering. The establishment of sedentary communities allowed intensive hunting and gathering groups to establish social stratification and commerce with other similar groups. An even more specialized society associated with the Natufian complex of the Middle East depended on the intensive gathering of wild grasses primarily barley and wheat. Natufian society was stratified and probably matrilocal and matrilineal. Despite the development of intensive gathering and sophisticated storage of grains, Natufian society did not create any technological innovations. The dependence of Natufian society on regional grasses left them vulnerable to changes in the climate. Due to desiccation of the region, Natufian communities disappeared around 9000 B.C.E.
5. A Precarious Existence
Whether grouped in small bands of nomadic hunters and gatherers or more densely clustered in intensive hunting and gathering groups, life for all Homo sapiens remained precarious. With limited technology and vulnerable to alterations in the migratory patterns of prey or climatic alterations that created changes in the ecosystems on which they depended, all human communities experienced the constant threat of extinction.

Agriculture and the Origins of Civilization: The Neolithic Revolution

1. Introduction
Beginning around 8000 B.C.E., many human cultures became increasingly dependent on cultivated crops and domesticated animals to secure their supply of food. By 7000 B.C.E. sedentary agriculture was able to support towns such as Jericho and Catal Huyuk with populations of more than 1,000. By 3500 B.C.E. the first civilizations appeared in the Middle East. While no one knows for certain what conditions caused the shift from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture, changes in the climate may have been significant factors. It is also probable that increases in human population prompted changes in food production.
2. The Domestication of Plants and Animals
The first plants domesticated were the wild grains, barley and wheat, that were common in many regions of the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture took place slowly. Only as additional crops were added to the agricultural system did societies diminish efforts to hunt and gather. Early agriculturalists may have continued a semi-nomadic lifestyle. At approximately the same time as the domestication of wild grains, agricultural societies also began to domesticate animals. Dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs were among the first animals domesticated around 8500 B.C.E. Cattle, more aggressive and faster than the other animals, were added to the agricultural system around 6500 B.C.E. Domesticated animals improved the supplies of available protein, provided hides and wool for clothing materials, and increased the manuring of agricultural land.
3. The Spread of Neolithic Revolution
The greater effort expended in agricultural systems made the shift to sedentary communities impractical for many groups. Hunting and gathering societies and agricultural communities continued to coexist. Some groups practiced pastoralism based on dependence on domesticated animals. Pastoral societies often thrive in semiarid regions incapable of supporting large populations of farmers. Pastoral societies were often strongly militarized. During the period of the Neolithic revolution (8000-5000 B.C.E.), agricultural techniques of production spread from the Middle East to other areas of the globe where the climate permitted. The cultivation of wheat and barley expanded from the Middle East to India and Europe. From Egypt the cultivation of grain crops spread southward along the Nile. Africa south of the Sahara desert developed an independent agricultural system around 2000 B.C.E. based on root and tree crops. In China, Neolithic agricultural societies developed a separate system of crops based on millet. Somewhat later, farmers of Southeast Asia began to cultivate rice. American agricultural systems featured maize, manioc, and sweet potatoes.
4. The Transform of Material Life
With the shift toward sedentary communities typical of the Neolithic revolution, the human population rapidly expanded. Villages and cultivated fields became the dominant features of human society. The development of sedentary settlements accelerated the pace of technological development. Many of these innovations were directly connected to agriculture, including plows, implements, techniques of seed selection, and irrigation. The development of better tools led to better housing and systems for storage of grain. More dependable food supplies and better housing created conditions conducive to population growth.
5. Social Differentiation
The production of food surpluses allowed social differentiation and economic specialization. Some people were freed from the processes associated with the production of food to make other commodities such as cloth, pottery, and leather goods. Economic specialization led to social stratification and the creation of elite classes of rulers. Regional economic specialization often centered on commodities indigenous to the region in which the community was located. In order to provide an equitable distribution of goods, trade was established among regions featuring different goods. Social stratification in early agricultural communities was limited. Property may have been held by all members of communities in common. The position of women in agricultural communities may have declined. Men took over the critical tasks of agriculture and began to monopolize the use of the new tools.

The First Towns: Seedbeds of Civilization

1. Introduction
By 7000 B.C.E. agricultural productivity was sufficient to support large communities including many nonagriculturalists. In larger communities numbering in the thousands, social stratification increased and trade became critical to the communities' survival. Two of the earliest of these large communities were located at Jericho in Palestine and Catal Huyuk in Turkey. Although few in number and isolated from surrounding villages and nomadic peoples, the earliest urban centers accelerated the pace of change and made major contributions to the technological revolution of the fourth millennium B.C.E.
2. Jericho
Jericho's site was favored by access to water. The site extended to more than ten acres by 7000 B.C.E. The later city consisted of many domestic dwellings built of brick and some religious shrines. The huge wall surrounded the entire settlement. Although Jericho was primarily an agricultural community, there is substantial evidence of both trade and hunting. The residents of Jericho traded their local supplies of salt, sulfur, and pitch for goods from Turkey, the Sinai, and the Red Sea. Structures at Jericho reveal substantial social and economic stratification and the existence of a governing elite.
3. Catal Huyuk
Founded in 7000 B.C.E., Catal Huyuk was larger than Jericho and included a more diversified population. Houses were standardized throughout the community and served as fortifications as well as residences. Standardization implies a stronger ruling elite at Catal Huyuk than at Jericho. Numerous religious shrines also suggest a powerful priesthood. The economy of Catal Huyuk was more diverse than that of Jericho. Pastoralism and domesticated animals were more widely used. Trade in a variety of goods was widespread. Artifacts also suggest the existence of a skilled population of craftsmen making obsidian objects.

Conclusion: The Watershed of the Fourth Millenium B. C. E.

Although not yet major urban centers, such as those associated with early civilizations, Catal Huyuk and Jericho established patterns of standardization and fortification that would eventually be found in the greater cities of Sumer and Egypt. Economic specialization and social stratification proved critical to the development of technological innovation in the fourth millennium B.C.E.

During the thousand years after 4000 B.C.E. the shift from stone tools to bronze took place. The development of writing made record-keeping and trading more effective. Most of this new technology was limited to Eurasia and Africa. The isolation of the Americas prevented the dissemination of many technological advances. Isolation of the Americas also made the people of those continents vulnerable to diseases of the Old World.

EU Ambassador: Shanghai Expo improves China's soft power

The Shanghai World Expo is a great investment in education for all citizens, has achieved great success and greatly improves China's soft power, said Serge Abou, E.U. Ambassador to China, when interviewed by reporters for China News Service recently.

The Shanghai Expo made a breakthrough in the number of exhibitors, visitors and organizers and has undoubtedly promoted the development of China-E.U. ties, which also proves Shanghai is a city with international attractiveness, Abou said.

Abou said the Shanghai World Expo has had a huge impact on China in three aspects.

First, it allowed ordinary Chinese people to know about the world's civilizations and development in a short time. The Expo opened a window for Chinese people, and they learned specific knowledge about most of the countries worldwide through the Expo.

Second, the Expo is an excellent investment in education, and it will be one of the biggest intangible assets. Abou said all the visitors to the Expo have been deeply educated under the theme "Better City, Better Life." They have learned how to solve the problem of urban pollution, how to reduce energy consumption and how to develop more environmentally-friendly technology. It is a valuable intellectual investment, he said.

Abou said that he had paid visits to the poor areas of western China and found some people do not easily understand concepts such as clean energy and zero carbon emissions. But through the Expo they can learn a lot of relevant information, which will be helpful when selecting the mode of economic development in some areas.

Third, the Expo enhanced China's international image and Shanghai's international reputation. In the eyes of ordinary Europeans, Shanghai has the Western legacy of the last century and modern, progressive and fashionable features. The Expo will attract more investors and visitors.

This year marks the 35 anniversary of the establishment of China-E.U. diplomatic ties, Abou said, and China-E.U. ties have never been so rich and deep. As the world ushers in a multi-polar era, in which China and the European Union are both important, enhancing mutual understanding of is becoming increasingly vital.

"I am happy to see that through the Expo, both the Chinese media and the public have had more understanding and good impressions of the European Union," Abou said. "The best investment is investment in people, and I hope the two countries seize the opportunities to continue to strengthen non-governmental exchanges, promote tourism, education and economic and trade exchanges."

The Neolithic Revolution and the Birth of Civilization

Introduction

 

The history of civilizations comprises only a tiny fraction of the time that the genus Homo has inhabited the earth. Civilized societies those that relied on sedentary agriculture, developed social stratification and economic specialization, and created population densities sufficient to support urban life have existed for the last 9,000 years. In order to understand civilizations, it is necessary to look at prehistorical precedents for human development in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The rise of sedentary agricultural communities during the Neolithic is one of the first great transformations of human society.

Human Life in the Era of Hunters and Gatherers

1. Introduction
Homo sapiens, one of a number of human-like species, was able to achieve biological dominance over its rivals and to spread over much of the earth by 10,000 B.C.E. The success of Homo sapiens was in part due to manual dexterity that permitted the production of tools enhancing the physical capabilities of early humans and to intelligence that allowed the development of spoken language enabling groups of humans to engage in cooperative behavior. Paleolithic Culture One of the earliest cultural traditions of Homo sapiens was the use of fire for cooking, curing animal hides, making weapons, and as a source of heat and light. By the late Paleolithic, human groups practiced mixed hunting and gathering. The surviving technology of this period consists of stone tools, the earliest of which date back more than two million years. Later Paleolithic human culture also featured artistic elements. The most impressive early works of art were cave paintings that may have had religious significance. It is also possible that these early works of art were primitive calendars or counting systems. The Spread of Human Culture Fire and the use of tools made it possible for humans to spread beyond Africa. By 12,000 B.C.E. human societies spread to Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Australia. Human Society and Daily Life at the end of the Paleolithic Era While most human societies at the end of the Paleolithic period migrated in pursuit of game, some groups were more sedentary. More stable groups harvested wild grains that grew in profusion near their settlements, and some of these societies progressed to true farming by domesticating plants and animals. Some of these groups subsequently reverted to hunting and gathering, suggesting that humans developed different strategies that produced sufficient quantities of food. Only those groups that adopted agriculture proved capable of producing civilizations. Hunting and gathering groups were limited to about 30 people and required extensive amounts of territory to support themselves. Migratory groups tended to live in the open rather than in caves and probably developed a sense of territoriality over the lands that produced their food. Labor was organized by gender males were responsible for hunting and protection of the group, while females gathered food from plants. Settling Down: Dead Ends and Transitions Between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E. some hunting-gathering groups developed more intensive techniques that permitted them to establish more sedentary settlements. In what is now central Russia, for example, groups were able to hunt wooly mammoths and supplement meat supplies with intensive gathering. The establishment of sedentary communities allowed intensive hunting and gathering groups to establish social stratification and commerce with other similar groups. An even more specialized society associated with the Natufian complex of the Middle East depended on the intensive gathering of wild grasses primarily barley and wheat. Natufian society was stratified and probably matrilocal and matrilineal. Despite the development of intensive gathering and sophisticated storage of grains, Natufian society did not create any technological innovations. The dependence of Natufian society on regional grasses left them vulnerable to changes in the climate. Due to desiccation of the region, Natufian communities disappeared around 9000 B.C.E. A Precarious ExistenceWhether grouped in small bands of nomadic hunters and gatherers or more densely clustered in intensive hunting and gathering groups, life for all Homo sapiens remained precarious. With limited technology and vulnerable to alterations in the migratory patterns of prey or climatic alterations that created changes in the ecosystems on which they depended, all human communities experienced the constant threat of extinction.

Agriculture and the Origins of Civilization: The Neolithic Revolution

1. Introduction
Beginning around 8000 B.C.E., many human cultures became increasingly dependent on cultivated crops and domesticated animals to secure their supply of food. By 7000 B.C.E. sedentary agriculture was able to support towns such as Jericho and Catal Huyuk with populations of more than 1,000. By 3500 B.C.E. the first civilizations appeared in the Middle East. While no one knows for certain what conditions caused the shift from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture, changes in the climate may have been significant factors. It is also probable that increases in human population prompted changes in food production.
2. The Domestication of Plants and Animals
The first plants domesticated were the wild grains, barley and wheat, that were common in many regions of the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture took place slowly. Only as additional crops were added to the agricultural system did societies diminish efforts to hunt and gather. Early agriculturalists may have continued a semi-nomadic lifestyle. At approximately the same time as the domestication of wild grains, agricultural societies also began to domesticate animals. Dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs were among the first animals domesticated around 8500 B.C.E. Cattle, more aggressive and faster than the other animals, were added to the agricultural system around 6500 B.C.E. Domesticated animals improved the supplies of available protein, provided hides and wool for clothing materials, and increased the manuring of agricultural land.
3. The Spread of Neolithic Revolution
The greater effort expended in agricultural systems made the shift to sedentary communities impractical for many groups. Hunting and gathering societies and agricultural communities continued to coexist. Some groups practiced pastoralism based on dependence on domesticated animals. Pastoral societies often thrive in semiarid regions incapable of supporting large populations of farmers. Pastoral societies were often strongly militarized. During the period of the Neolithic revolution (8000-5000 B.C.E.), agricultural techniques of production spread from the Middle East to other areas of the globe where the climate permitted. The cultivation of wheat and barley expanded from the Middle East to India and Europe. From Egypt the cultivation of grain crops spread southward along the Nile. Africa south of the Sahara desert developed an independent agricultural system around 2000 B.C.E. based on root and tree crops. In China, Neolithic agricultural societies developed a separate system of crops based on millet. Somewhat later, farmers of Southeast Asia began to cultivate rice. American agricultural systems featured maize, manioc, and sweet potatoes. The Transform of Material Life With the shift toward sedentary communities typical of the Neolithic revolution, the human population rapidly expanded. Villages and cultivated fields became the dominant features of human society. The development of sedentary settlements accelerated the pace of technological development. Many of these innovations were directly connected to agriculture, including plows, implements, techniques of seed selection, and irrigation. The development of better tools led to better housing and systems for storage of grain. More dependable food supplies and better housing created conditions conducive to population growth.
4. Social Differentiation
The production of food surpluses allowed social differentiation and economic specialization. Some people were freed from the processes associated with the production of food to make other commodities such as cloth, pottery, and leather goods. Economic specialization led to social stratification and the creation of elite classes of rulers. Regional economic specialization often centered on commodities indigenous to the region in which the community was located. In order to provide an equitable distribution of goods, trade was established among regions featuring different goods. Social stratification in early agricultural communities was limited. Property may have been held by all members of communities in common. The position of women in agricultural communities may have declined. Men took over the critical tasks of agriculture and began to monopolize the use of the new tools.

The First Towns: Seedbeds of Civilization

1. Introduction
By 7000 B.C.E. agricultural productivity was sufficient to support large communities including many nonagriculturalists. In larger communities numbering in the thousands, social stratification increased and trade became critical to the communities' survival. Two of the earliest of these large communities were located at Jericho in Palestine and Catal Huyuk in Turkey. Although few in number and isolated from surrounding villages and nomadic peoples, the earliest urban centers accelerated the pace of change and made major contributions to the technological revolution of the fourth millennium B.C.E. Jericho Jericho's site was favored by access to water. The site extended to more than ten acres by 7000 B.C.E. The later city consisted of many domestic dwellings built of brick and some religious shrines. The huge wall surrounded the entire settlement. Although Jericho was primarily an agricultural community, there is substantial evidence of both trade and hunting. The residents of Jericho traded their local supplies of salt, sulfur, and pitch for goods from Turkey, the Sinai, and the Red Sea. Structures at Jericho reveal substantial social and economic stratification and the existence of a governing elite.
2. Catal Huyuk
Founded in 7000 B.C.E., Catal Huyuk was larger than Jericho and included a more diversified population. Houses were standardized throughout the community and served as fortifications as well as residences. Standardization implies a stronger ruling elite at Catal Huyuk than at Jericho. Numerous religious shrines also suggest a powerful priesthood. The economy of Catal Huyuk was more diverse than that of Jericho. Pastoralism and domesticated animals were more widely used. Trade in a variety of goods was widespread. Artifacts also suggest the existence of a skilled population of craftsmen making obsidian objects.

Conclusion: The Watershed of the Fourth Millenium B. C. E.

Although not yet major urban centers, such as those associated with early civilizations, Catal Huyuk and Jericho established patterns of standardization and fortification that would eventually be found in the greater cities of Sumer and Egypt. Economic specialization and social stratification proved critical to the development of technological innovation in the fourth millennium B.C.E.

During the thousand years after 4000 B.C.E. the shift from stone tools to bronze took place. The development of writing made record-keeping and trading more effective. Most of this new technology was limited to Eurasia and Africa. The isolation of the Americas prevented the dissemination of many technological advances. Isolation of the Americas also made the people of those continents vulnerable to diseases of the Old World.

India at the Shanghai World Expo 2010 and its significance in Sino - Indian Relations

In the midst of the concrete and steel jungle that is the Shanghai World Expo, stands the Indian Pavilion, the 'greenest' of them all, built entirely of environment-friendly materials, showcasing India's unique brand of Culture, History and Soft Power and offering an unprecedented opportunity to further improve Sino-Indian relations and India's Soft Power in China.

The Expo has finally come to China. A largely forgotten event in most parts of the world, it has been rejuvenated, on a scale in which no other country could even dream of. A record number of 192 countries and 50 organizations have registered, the highest in the Expo's history. Most people hadn't even heard of the expo before it came to China.
The verdict is clear - The Expo needed China as much as China needed the Expo.
It has been described by the Chinese government as "a great gathering of world civilizations",  and is an excellent opportunity to improve ties between two of the oldest - India and China.
The Indian pavilion
The Indian Pavilion is a massive stupa (pronounced stuup, with an slightly elongated u), resembling specifically the Sanchi Stupa built during the Maurya Dynasty (322-185 BC) by King Ashoka (pronounced  Ashok).
 

In what is one of the greatest examples the diversity and plurality of Indian history and culture, the dome is shaped like the Taj Mahal Mausoleum (which, commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and completed in 1653, is one of the seven wonders of the world) and the inspiration of its design comes from the Sanchi Stupa (which was completed in the third century BCE and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site).

Taj Mahal

Sanchi Stupa

The Indian Pavilion

As the world moves towards urbanization, the idea behind the Indian pavilion successfully blends the concepts of sustainable ecological development with modern technology and town planning - which is accentuated by the theme - Cities of Harmony.
And what better model than ancient India, where the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE), whose cities, most notably - Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro, reached a level of urban planning and technological sophistication which was unparalleled during the time. As a matter of fact, the sheer brilliance and superiority of those prehistoric cities would put Mumbai to shame, whose streets flood every couple of years due to heavy rains and poor town planning coupled with inefficient drainage systems, not to mention 55% of the city's population living in slums! (In the words of India's Environment and Forests Minister, Jairam Ramesh, if there is a Noble Prize for filth, India will win it!)
The Indian Pavilion is built entirely of bamboo and other environment friendly materials like solar panels, windmills,  plants, water cascade and earthen tiles; and is the 'greenest' and most eco-friendly pavilion at the expo. Over 60,000 saplings, including many herbal medicinal plants, have been used in the roofing panels, which also collect rainwater for use in the pavilion. Over 30 kms of bamboo (which came from eastern Chinese forests) has gone into its construction. It is in fact the world's largest Bamboo Dome - 35 meters wide and 18 meters tall, and contains an interlaced network of more than 500 pieces of 20 meter-length rods of bamboo.
Completely rewriting China's architecture rulebook, it will be spared demolition unlike the other pavilions (excluding China's), dismantled and then reconstructed in Wushi, Zhejiang Province. The Indian architects had to prepare the first ever bamboo construction plans and code and then get the Chinese to approve it before proceeding.  
According to the official website:

The concept and theme of India Pavilion will revolve around journey of Indian cities from ancient times to medieval period to modern India. This journey is full of glorious peaks and downs in the medieval period. The concept of urban planning was known to India as back as the times of Mohan Jo daro and Hadappa (dating back to 2000-3000 B.C. Circa), the twin cities that were discovered by British archaeologists. These cities had well laid out streets at right angles, underground drainage and water supply system with common public areas.

As urban life spread among Indian people, we find cities with specific sectors, which were known as Mohallahs, where people belonging to a specific guild or trade used to live, such as, Kapda Bazaar (cloth market) where textile merchants had their shops and living quarters; Sarafa Bazaar (jewelery market) where all jewellers had their shops and living quarters, Katras (grain and eatables market) and so on. New urban centres were set up by Mughal emperors spanning throughout India based on specialized trade and services on the lines of modern Special Economic Zones, e.g., Varanasi became known for silk and silk embroidery; Mysore for special silk and sandlewood work; Calicut for muslin cloth and jewelery; Moradabad for brassware; Aligarh for locks; Agra for footwear and marble works etc. During the medieval period also, ambitious kings planned ambitious cities, such as, Jaipur, which was laid in a very scientific manner with entire city being painted in one colour for which it is still known as ‘Pink City’.

The highlights of the pavilion include the 'Tree of Life' carving by the Sidi Saiyyed Mosque in Ahmedabad, a 'Zero-Chemical Area', which displays many energy efficient technologies, a traditional 'Indian Market' or Bazaar, and a Holographic projection showcasing India's evolution from the Indus Valley days to modern times.
And in the Urban Best practices Area (UBPA), which offers a platform for different countries to propose their solutions to the urban issues from different perspectives,  two role models from India — one from Ahmedabad and the other from Pondicherry — are being showcased with 34 others as experiments in improving urban life. The Ahmedabad initiative is focused on clean and green economic development, while Pondicherry focuses on heritage preservation along with economic growth.


The Indian pavilion also features authentic Indian cuisine, Indian cultural programmes, including dances (some of which are so diverse and different from the others that I'm quite sure some people will wonder whether they are from the same country!), and of course - India's latest soft power export - Bollywood. The organizers have roped in 50 performers, backed by a team of film technicians and choreographers to act out 40 years of classic moments in Indian cinema. And Yoga (pronounced Yog) - the single most popular aspect of Indian culture and soft power abroad - is also on the cards.

Where's India's other achievement?
While all this should certainly be applauded, what is surprising is that a presentation of the other aspect that India is known for around the word - its IT prowess - is nowhere to be seen. A combination of culture, environment friendly urban planning and India's IT and software industry prowess would have been a great and unique combination. Not to mention the fact that this is one of the few advantages which India has over China.


Strengthening  Sino - Indian Relations and India's Soft Power
As the two most populous countries in the world and rising powers, India and China have a responsibility to maintain healthy relations, not only towards themselves but also towards the whole world. And the expo offers an excellent opportunity for India to increase the people-to-people contact between these two countries and awareness about Indian culture in China.

The India pavilion has become one of the most popular spots at the expo with an average of 25,000 visitors every day.

The huge line of visitors queued up to get inside the Indian pavilion as seen above speaks for itself.

Many countries are increasingly realizing that Soft Power can be a very effective tool for increasing their influence, especially countries with rich histories and cultures like India and China. They have a lot to export in that direction; and can use Soft Power very effectively to project an image. Pavan Varma, the head of the Indian Council on Cultural Relations, has argued that “Culturally, India is a superpower.”
Unlike China, India has lacked the initiative and aggression to effectively use Soft Power as an instrument of Foreign Policy.  For example, while the Chinese government has established 295 Confucius Institutes in 78 countries, the Indian Equivalent - Indian Cultural Institutes - number only 20. Most of India's Soft Power abroad is promulgated through private individuals and enterprises, like Bollywood, and the so-called 'Indian Gurus', like Deepak Chopra.
This year is the 60th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between two countries. In China, interest in Indian culture and History is on the rise.
The Indian President, Pratibha Patil, on a recent visit to China, unveiled the first Indian Style Buddhist Temple in Luoyang in Henan province after a gap of 1900 years, when two Indian monks Kashyapamatanga and Dharmaratna helped establish the first Buddhist shrine. This temple was at the same site as the White Horse Temple, built in 68 AD, the first Buddhist Temple in China,  and is  part of an India-China Cultural cooperation initiative. She also unveiled a statue of poet and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore in the heart of old-town Shanghai, which the poet visited in the 1920s and left a strong influence on a whole generation of Chinese intellectuals and writers.
Tourism is another important aspect which has been neglected. In 2008, Chinese arrivals to India made up less than 2 per cent of the total number of foreign travelers. India's lack of adequate infrastructure, a lack of awareness about Indian Tourism among common Chinese are just two of the many problems which are at the heart of the asymmetrical tourist flow. With China slated to become the  world's fourth-largest source of outbound tourists by 2020, it is a market which India, like any other country, cannot afford to take lightly.
Hence, the Shanghai World Expo becomes all the more important and it is an opportunity that simply could not be ignored. The Indian government has taken an unprecedented advantage of this situation, by not only showcasing India's Soft Power through its unique culture and history, but also various green initiatives coupled with technology and urban planning, a pavilion built entirely with environment friendly materials and with zero carbon emissions which is a welcome change amidst the steel and concrete jungle of the expo - an endeavor which has the potential to drastically strengthen Sino-Indian Relations like no other.

Hinduism and India

In Javidnama, the first station on Moon is the cave of the sage from ancient India, Vishvamitra. He is immersed in meditation when Rumi and Iqbal arrive there and a light "which could even illuminate shadows" is filling up the cave.

Opening his eyes, Vishvamitra holds a conversation with Rumi and Iqbal, asks nine brief questions to Iqbal and then offers nine "sayings".

It is obvious that Vishvamitra is intended to be the icon of rational-intuitive intelligence, and by implication associating the highest manifestation of this kind of intelligence with the Indian genius.

Also, this placement seems to be correcting the error which some Western scholars had introduced by placing Hinduism under the umbrella category of "religion." Hindus scholars have often argued that Hinduism is different from other world religions and predates them. It is remarkable that the Indian sage is the first apparition on the Sphere of Moon: unmistakably, the cave of Vishvamitra is a sort of "initiation" rite for Iqbal in his journey towards the Ultimate Reality, and comes much before the tablets of prophets.

In his conversation with Iqbal, Vishvamitra mentions an angel whom he saw looking towards the planet earth from a dune on the Moon. The angel foretold the impending independence of the East and said, "It is the moment of rejoicing for the angels of the Divine Throne when a nation opens its eyes from slumber."

Interestingly, this speech by an angel in Javidnama foreshadows the famous "freedom at midnight" speech delivered by Nehru on the precise moment when India finally won independence several years later. Even more interestingly, Nehru is mentioned in Javidnama itself (although not in this chapter but in Chapter 7 in a conversation held in Paradise). Since Nehru is generally supposed to have been familiar with Javidnama, an interesting question comes to mind: did the influence of the angel's speech creep into his freedom speech even unconsciously? The possibility does not appear outlandish if we remember that in the same inaugural session of the Indian parliament, Iqbal's famous poem "Saray jahan say achha" was also sung as a national song.

Freedom, then is seems to be one of the two important forces which seem to have been working in Iqbal's India according to Javidnama. The other force was the ideal of territorial nationalism borrowed from Western imperialism (as we shall see in 6. Christianity and the West).

Tuesday, Wednesday, Next Monday **Be Sure to Bring Things Fall Apart**

I will not be in school on either Tuesday or Wednesday of this week. Please make the most of the periods with the substitute to review the material you have read on the scramble for Africa, as well as the effects of and response to the scramble among the native peoples of Africa. The activities I have provided for the subs are exactly the same as those I had planned to teach myself-- these are not simply time-fillers.


***Be sure to bring the book Things Fall Apart to class on Wednesday***

See handout #26 for information on Monday's Africa Test. This test WILL COUNT for the 1st quarter, so it provides a chance for some of you to boost your grade significantly.

As always, you can contact me via email or by commenting on this blog. Comments will go directly to my email but have the added benefit of being available to everyone in the class-- any questions you have are probably questions someone else has, too.